Coaching and Leadership Frameworks at a Glance: 21 Lenses for Teams and Organizations

Effective Scrum Masters and coaches view events through multiple lenses. Each lens provides clues for appropriate interventions. Essentially, we're always looking for the smallest intervention with the greatest impact. But what are these lenses? In this article, I present the 21 most important concepts from the 37 authors I encountered during my research.

Why do we need multiple lenses?

Hinweis: Es gibt auch eine Version in deutscher Sprache von diesem Beitrag. 

The scientific and practical work of Karl Weick, Chris Argyris, Donald Schön, W. Ross Ashby, Niklas Luhmann, Fredric Vester, Rand Spiro, Paul Feltovich, Richard Coulson, and Charlie Munger reveals that people who can shift their perspective and view events from multiple viewpoints tend to be more successful.

Let's examine what these individuals discovered. Note: I received assistance from Perplexity.ai in compiling this information.

People who look through different lenses perceive more (created with Google Gemini)

Karl Weick (born 1936) is a pioneer in the field of organizational psychology. He is known for his concepts of sensemaking and loose coupling. His theories are ideal for management and coaching perspectives because they illuminate the dynamic processes of sensemaking. Influenced by James G. March, Weick comes from the organizational psychology and systems theory tradition. He views organizations as sensemaking systems that create reality retrospectively rather than as rigid structures. His work, Sensemaking in Organizations (1995), for example, has revolutionized organizational theory. Sensemaking reduces equivocality through social, retrospective processes, and loose coupling enables flexibility. Mindfulness promotes resilience. These ideas have had a lasting impact on change management, crisis intervention, and leadership development.

Chris Argyris (1923-2013) and Donald Schön (1930-1997) were pioneers in organizational development and learning. Their concepts, such as double-loop learning and reflective practice, are ideal lenses through which to view management and coaching. Together, they shaped the theory of the learning organization through their collaborative works. Argyris came from the field of organizational psychology (influenced by Kurt Lewin), and Schön was a philosopher and urban planner. Together, they developed theories of learning in organizations, focusing on the discrepancy between espoused and actual theories. Their books, such as Organizational Learning (1978/1996) and Theory in Practice (1974), introduced the concepts of single- and double-loop learning, reflective practice, and learning organizations. Their work has had a lasting impact on management practices, consulting, and leadership development worldwide.

W. Ross Ashby (1903–1972), Niklas Luhmann (1927–1998), and Frederic Vester (1925–2003) offer valuable insights into complexity and systems in management and coaching. Their cybernetics and systems theories help manage uncertainty and interconnectedness. Ashby's background was in cybernetics and psychiatry, and he was influenced by Norbert Wiener. His Law of Required Variety has shaped management, the Viable System Model (Beer), and resilience in volatile environments. Luhmann was a sociologist. As a leading systems theorist, he is credited with explaining operationally closed, autopoietic systems in organizations. His theory of functionally differentiated societies influences organizational design, decision-making processes, and complexity reduction in management. Vester has a background in biochemistry, cybernetics, and environmental research. He coined the term "networked thinking" for planning and management. His sensitivity model and influence matrix enable the analysis of complex systems and are applied to strategy, environmental, and organizational projects.

Rand Spiro, Paul Feltovich (1947–2025), and Richard Coulson developed the Cognitive Flexibility Theory (CFT), a key perspective on complex learning. This theory involves repeatedly reviewing information to avoid cognitive biases.

Charlie Munger (1924–2023) was the vice chairman of Berkshire Hathaway and a close partner of Warren Buffett. He was known for his interdisciplinary thinking models. His ideas on rational thinking and investing offer valuable insights for management and coaching. Munger came from a legal background (he worked at the law firm Munger, Tolles & Olson) and an investment background (he worked at Wheeler, Munger & Co. from 1962). He was influenced by Benjamin Graham and Philip Fisher. Investors, managers, and coaches regard him as brilliant because of his "Latticework of Mental Models," which are multidisciplinary models from psychology, physics, biology, and other fields that improve decision-making. He shaped Berkshire Hathaway, popularizing mental models (e.g., the Lollapalooza effect) and the concept of "fair pricing for great companies." He also promoted ethics. Books like Poor Charlie's Almanack inspire worldly wisdom and bias avoidance in management.

We dislike complex situations. Due to various cognitive biases, we tend to oversimplify. Considering different perspectives allows us to evaluate situations multiple times and in different ways, leading to better solutions. Furthermore, considering different perspectives strengthens team cohesion because diverse viewpoints are heard. In the case of Charlie Munger and Berkshire Hathaway, one could even say that this approach is financially lucrative.

What lenses or frames are available for leadership and organizations?

So far, the authors have encouraged leaders and coaches to adopt different perspectives. Which perspectives, frameworks, or lenses are frequently mentioned in leadership and coaching literature? Let's examine a few more authors on this topic.

There are different lenses for looking at the complex processes within organizations (created with Google Gemini)

Considered a pioneer of organizational psychology, Edgar Schein (1928-2023) originated the cultural levels model, which analyzes organizations as cultural systems. His work provides an ideal perspective on management and coaching in cultural change and leadership. The community values him as a co-founder of organizational psychology and as an expert on the invisible cultural forces that influence behavior, which is essential for leadership and change. Schein's cultural levels model (artifacts, espoused values, and assumptions) revolutionized the understanding of corporate culture.

Lee G. Bolman (born 1941) and Terrence E. Deal (1939–2024) developed the four-frames-model, a multi-perspective lens for organizations. (The link leads to a page of articles that can be searched on Google Scholar.) This tool is ideal for managers and coaches to use when analyzing complex situations. The model is valued by the community as a practical framework that prevents leaders from acting unilaterally and encourages them to adopt a multi-perspective approach, thus avoiding misdiagnoses in change and conflict situations. Their book, Reframing Organizations (8th edition, 2025), teaches readers how to view organizations through four lenses: structure, human resources, politics, and symbols.

This aligns with John S. Carroll's (MIT Sloan) "Three Lenses on Organizational Analysis", a framework used in courses such as Managerial Psychology and Organizational Processes. Carroll proposes viewing organizations through three complementary perspectives rather than from a one-sided perspective: Strategic Design, Political, and Cultural.

Stefan Kühl and Judith Muster developed the concept of the "mixing desk of leadership". They distinguish between the necessity of skillful leadership and organizational structures that support or relieve leaders. They defined three leadership substitutes: programs, communication channels, and personnel decisions.

Ronald Heifetz, born in 1951, is a pioneer of adaptive leadership and the founder of the Center for Public Leadership at Harvard University. His "balcony and dance floor" metaphor illustrates how to balance action and reflection, which is ideal for crisis management. His books, such as Leadership Without Easy Answers (1994), Leadership on the Line (2002), and The Practice of Adaptive Leadership (2009), have shaped global leadership. The metaphor helps leaders navigate crises and mobilize teams. He is valued in the community for his work on adaptive leadership, particularly for his ability to distinguish between technical and adaptive challenges. The balcony metaphor allows one to take a step back from the "dance floor" action, facilitating pattern recognition.

Peter Senge (born 1947) is a systems thinker and the originator of the concept of the "learning organization." His Five Disciplines model has revolutionized management and coaching. His work promotes adaptive leadership in complex systems. He is revered in the community as the most influential management thinker on the "Fifth Discipline" (systems thinking), which overcomes silo thinking and enables collective learning. His 1990 book The Fifth Discipline defines disciplines such as personal mastery, mental models, shared vision, team learning, and systems thinking. It has inspired millions of organizations to become more resilient, innovative, and culturally adaptable.

Friedemann Schulz von Thun (born 1944) is a renowned communication psychologist whose four-sides model explains misunderstandings. The model offers a precise lens for coaching, leadership, and team dynamics. His seminal work, Miteinander reden (1981 ff.), incorporates the four-sides model, the concept of the inner team, and communication styles. It has been used to train millions. The book promotes empathetic and clarifying interactions in organizations and in everyday life. He is recognized as the originator of the communication square, which describes communication as a four-sided process: factual information, self-revelation, relationship, and appeal.

These are all models that help us understand the complexities of leadership, management, and coaching. Effective coaches and leaders frequently switch between these models.

Lenses with ratings or development stages

The models mentioned thus far highlight specific aspects of organizations. To learn what cultural artifacts or mental models are, one must engage with the original literature. The following models take it a step further. They offer concrete suggestions for categorizing situations or events.

There are different lenses that evaluate things (created with Google Gemini)

Focus on People

Bill Joiner and Stephen Josephs developed "Leadership Agility", a stage model for leadership development that connects personal growth and agility. This model is ideal for individuals in volatile contexts. Proponents of the model often work with five practical stages of development (Expert, Achiever, Catalyst, Co-Creator, and Synergist) that illustrate how people respond to complexity within organizations.

In "Tribal Leadership" (2008), Dave Logan, John King, and Halee Fischer-Wright developed a model that views organizations as "tribes" of 20–150 people. The authors analyzed language and relationship patterns and identified five worldviews. These worldviews describe cultural dynamics and offer levers for upgrades, making them an ideal lens for team and organizational development. The five worldviews (of individuals or groups) are: Life Sucks, My Life Sucks, I'm Great (You're Not), We're Great, and Life Is Great.

Organizational Focus

Frederic Laloux is a Belgian author and coach. He is best known for his 2014 book, Reinventing Organizations. In developing his organizational model, he investigated what people in specific organizations consider important. Whenever an organization reached its limits, it had to evolve. His resulting model is a milestone for new work and self-organized structures. Laloux describes the evolutionary stages using colors: Red (power), amber (hierarchy), orange (success machine), green (pluralistic), and teal (integral).

William Schneider, an American organizational psychologist and consultant, developed the Core Culture Model. The model helps diagnose organizational cultures and align them with strategy, providing a practical lens for change and alignment. Schneider first described his model in detail in his 1994 book, The Reengineering Alternative. Among other things, he examines leadership behavior, decision-making, performance evaluation, and staffing. Based on two axes (reality- vs. possibility-oriented and people- vs. company-oriented), he identifies four organizational cultures: Control Culture, Collaboration Culture, Competence Culture, and Cultivation Culture.

Kim S. Cameron and Robert E. Quinn developed the Competing Values Framework (CVF), a 2x2 model for cultural analysis similar to Schneider's, but with a focus on value conflicts. The CVF uses two axes (flexible vs. stable and internal vs. external orientation) to derive four value cultures: Clan, Adhocracy, Market, and Hierarchy. The CVF is a standard feature in organizational design and is measured using the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI).

Problem Focus

Dave Snowden (born 1954) is a pioneer in complexity research and the creator of Cynefin. Cynefin categorizes contexts and dictates appropriate strategies. Cynefin is a powerful lens for management and coaching in uncertain environments. The community considers Snowden groundbreaking because Cynefin warns leaders and coaches against applying a one-size-fits-all approach to every situation (e.g., applying best practices to complex situations). A good leader examines the situation and considers what constitutes good action in that context. Cynefin distinguishes four categories: Clear, Complicated, Complex, and Chaotic. Then there are situations in which observers don't know what's really going on. These situations confuse observers.

Lenses in agile practice

Various approaches, perspectives, and frameworks are frequently used in agile practice.

Barry Overeem, a Dutch Professional Scrum Trainer (PST) and co-founder of The Liberators and Columinity, is known for his "8 Stances of a Scrum Master". This framework describes the eight attitudes or roles of the Scrum Master in agile teams, providing a valuable lens for coaching and facilitation. The eight stances are: Servant Leader, Coach, Facilitator, Teacher, Mentor, Manager, Impediment Remover, and Change Agent.

Lyssa Adkins and Michael Spayd take a similar approach. They are agile coaching pioneers whose Agile Coach Competency Framework (ACCF) and book Coaching Agile Teams (2010) have helped to standardize the profession. The ACCF is a holistic model for agile coaches and is central to transformations. Their model also defines eight roles or stances: Agile-Lean Practitioner; Teaching; Mentoring; Technical Mastery; Business Mastery; Transformation Mastery; Facilitation; and Professional Coaching.

Esther Derby, an American organizational consultant and Agile pioneer, is the author of "7 Rules for Positive, Productive Change: Micro Shifts, Macro Results" (2019). The book offers heuristics for adaptive change, providing a lens through which one can achieve sustainable change without coercion. In the book, she presents seven rules: "Strive for Congruence," "Honor the Past, Present, and People," "Assess What Is," "Attend to Networks," "Experiment," "Guide and Allow for Variation," and "Use Yourself".

Diana Larsen (and James Shore) developed the Agile Fluency Model (2014), which guides teams through four zones of agility. This pragmatic framework for Agile maturity is similar to Tribal Leadership in that it focuses on skills rather than methods. Agile teams work their way through the different zones: Focusing, Delivering, Optimizing, and Strengthening.

Jürgen Appelo is a Dutch-Belgian speaker, author, and entrepreneur. He is also the founder of Management 3.0, which is a mindset and toolkit for agile management. His Six-View Model (Martie) helps manage complex organizations holistically. The six views of organizations are: Energize People, Empower Teams, Align Constraints, Develop Competence, Grow Structure, and Improve Everything.

Elena Aguilar is a U.S.-based instructional coach, author, and founder of the Bright Morning Team. Her books, The Art of Coaching (2013) and "Arise: The Art of Transformational Coaching" (2024), offer a framework for in-depth coaching in schools, focusing on transformation through the "3 B's": beliefs, behaviors, and ways of being.

Marita Fridjhon and Faith Fuller are the co-founders of CRR Global and the creators of Organization and Relationship Systems Coaching (ORSC™), a coaching model that treats teams and organizations as "third entities" (relationship systems). ORSC is based on five principles: intelligence, boundaries, roles, polarities, and dependency. This third entity is fundamental to team coaching. Coaches focus on the system rather than on individuals.

The sisters Glenda Eoyang and Royce Holladay are pioneers of Human Systems Dynamics (HSD) and developed the CDE model (Container, Differences, Exchanges) model in their 2013 book, "Adaptive Action". The CDE model is a tool for adaptive change in complex systems, making it ideal for management and coaching in times of uncertainty.

Conclusion

No single lens, frame, or approach can capture everything, but every good one captures something important that others overlook. These approaches span a spectrum, from descriptive lenses that categorize situations (Cynefin, Four Frames, and Communication Square) to normative stage models that describe development and growth (Leadership Agility, Tribal Leadership, and Laloux). Some focus on individuals, some on teams, some on organizations as a whole, and some on the problem itself. These different levels of zoom complement each other.

Why are there so many different approaches? Because each author comes from a different discipline - such as cybernetics, law, sociology, education, or psychology - and views the situation through the lens of their own field. This diversity is not a flaw but a feature; it reflects the true complexity of human systems.

Therefore, the most important lesson is not one of content, but of methodology. It's not about finding the one right model; it's about switching flexibly between models. That is the real craft of good leadership and coaching.